Paradise Blog

The Dominican Republic was explored by Columbus on his first voyage in 1492. He named it La Española, and his son, Diego, was its first viceroy. The capital, Santo Domingo, founded in 1496, is the oldest European settlement in the Western Hemisphere.

Spain ceded the colony to France in 1795, and Haitian blacks under Toussaint L’Ouverture conquered it in 1801. In 1808 the people revolted and captured Santo Domingo the next year, setting up the first republic. Spain regained title to the colony in 1814. In 1821 Spanish rule was overthrown, but in 1822 the colony was reconquered by the Haitians. In 1844 the Haitians were thrown out, and the Dominican Republic was established, headed by Pedro Santana. Uprisings and Haitian attacks led Santana to make the country a province of Spain from 1861 to 1865.

President Buenaventura Báez, faced with an economy in shambles, attempted to have the country annexed to the U.S. in 1870, but the U.S. Senate refused to ratify a treaty of annexation. Disorder continued until the dictatorship of Ulíses Heureaux; in 1916, when chaos broke out again, the U.S. sent in a contingent of marines, who remained until 1924.

A sergeant in the Dominican army trained by the marines, Rafaél Leonides Trujillo Molina, overthrew Horacio Vásquez in 1930 and established a dictatorship that lasted until his assassination in 1961, 31 years later. In 1962, Juan Bosch of the leftist Dominican Revolutionary Party, became the first democratically elected president in four decades.

In 1963, a military coup ousted Bosch and installed a civilian triumvirate. Leftists rebelled against the new regime in April 1965, and U.S. president Lyndon Johnson sent in marines and troops. After a cease-fire in May, a compromise installed Hector Garcia-Godoy as provisional president. In 1966, right-wing candidate Joaquin Balaguer won in free elections against Bosch, and U.S. and other foreign troops withdrew.

In 1978 the army suspended the counting of ballots when Balaguer trailed in a fourth-term bid. After a warning from President Jimmy Carter, however, Balaguer accepted the victory of Antonio Guzmán of the Dominican Revolutionary Party. In 1982 elections, Salvador Jorge Blanco of the Dominican Revolutionary Party defeated Balaguer and Bosch. Balaguer was again elected president in May 1986 and remained in office for the next ten years.

In 1996, U.S.-raised Leonel Fernández secured more than 51% of the vote through an alliance with Balaguer. The first item on the president’s agenda was the partial sale of some state-owned enterprises. Fernández was praised for ending decades of isolationism and improving ties with other Caribbean countries, but he was criticized for not fighting corruption or alleviating the poverty that affects 60% of the population.

In Aug. 2000 the center-left Hipólito Mejía was elected president amid popular discontent over power outages in the recently privatized electric industry, but in May 2004 presidential elections he was defeated by former president Leonel Fernández (1996–2000). Fernández instituted austerity measures to rescue the country from its economic crisis, and in the first half of 2006, the economy grew 11.7%.

The island’s natives, the Taíno tribe, have passed down some of their own words and foods. Origins of the words for hammock and tobacco, for example, can be traced to the native Arawak language of the island. Similarly, local foods and agriculture form the basis of the current mix of culinary styles.

The Spanish, however, made the language what it is today. But language is by no means the only influence the Spanish had over Dominican culture. Roman Catholic religion is the dominant practice on the island, with a few Episcopalian Christians and Jews filling out the mix. The cultural machismo is also a Spanish influence.

Africans who were brought to the Dominican Republic as slaves also brought their own cultural influences. Over the years, African religious beliefs have combined with Roman Catholic faith to become part of a folk religion, and the music and dance combined with local styles has merged into forms that are distinctively Dominican.

Still, this island’s complex cultural mixture doesn’t end here. The Dominican Republic has welcomed cultures from around the world to their island. Baseball, for example, is one of the most famous and important cultural activities that takes place on the island. The Dominican Republic is known for producing some of the best players in Major League Baseball.

The Caribbean before the landing of Columbus served almost as a bridge between the north coast of South America and Florida for the Amazonian tribes in the south and the north american inhabitants. When Christopher Columbus on his second trip in 1493 landed in Puerto Rico and claimed it for Spain, he found the island populated by as many as 60,000 Arawak or Taino indians, which for the most part, were friendly compared to the Carib indians in some of the more southerly islands which were warlike and to some degree cannibalistic.

The conquest of the island didn’t take long, and the peaceful Tainos were put to the task as slaves for the purpose of mining the gold that was found on the island. The gold didn’t last long and in 1511 there was an uprising of the Tainos, who up to this point had believed that the Spaniards were Gods, and took a soldier by the name of Sotomayor and dunked him head first in a river for several hours to see if he would die. Just in case, they had prepared a feast for the Spaniard if he came out alive. However, it wasn’t the Spanish sword that took most of the lives of the Arawaks, but the diseases that were brought from Europe and for which the indians had no defenses.

In 1508 the first governor arrived, Juan Ponce de León (who is more famous as the searcher for the fountain of youth and discoveror of the state of Florida). The island remained Spanish despite harassment and numerous conquest attempts by buccaneers and pirates and English and Dutch expeditions. To defend the island against these threats, two forts, El Morro and San Cristóbal,were built to guard the approaches to San Juan harbor. Defense of these forts foiled attempts by Sir Francis Drake in 1595, by another English fleet in 1598, and by the Dutch in 1625 to capture Puerto Rico for their respective empires. The defeat of the British in 1797 finally thwarted that country’s designs on the island, and the Spanish colony was kept intact.

During the 16th to the 19th century Puerto Rico was characterized primarily by underpopulation, poverty and neglect by Spain. It was mainly a garrison for the ships that would pass on their way to or from the other and richer colonies. During this time as much as 10 or 11 years would pass between the arrival of ships from Spain and as trade with other countries was prohibited, the island reverted to contraband trading with ships from England, Netherlands or whomever would trade for the main produce of the island, which at that time was ginger. This peasant agriculture continued until the early 19th century, when Spanish law was changed to allow unrestricted trade with the neighbors.

The 19th century in Puerto Rico was characterized by a series of strict if not brutal military governors which stifled the independence movements in Puerto Rico that were shaking the foundations of its other American colonies. Slavery and the importation of slaves reached its peak, with the need for workers on the sugar and coffee plantations. Slavery, however, never reached the alarming proportions of freemen to slaves as it did on the other colonies or even on parts of the United States. While in Haiti in 1789 the slaves comprised 90% of the population and in Jamaica 85%, in Puerto Rico in 1834 the census established that 11% of the population were slaves, 35% were colored freemen and 54% were white. It was only until 1873, however, that slavery was finally abolished in Puerto Rico.

During the 19th century there was also increased immigration from the colonies that were being lost by Spain and this influx of people and capital allowed for creation of many towns and cities. The economy grew as a result and export-oriented agriculture became prominent, especially coffee and sugar. In 1897 home rule was established for the first time by the Autonomic Charter granted by the Spanish government and Puerto Rico was given the status of a Spanish dominion. This autonomy was short lived, however, as the United States defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War and was ceded Puerto Rico in 1898.

The Foraker Act of 1901 established the relationship of the United States with Puerto Rico and many of its provisions are still in force. During this period the Puerto Ricans were in a citizenship limbo as they weren’t citizens of Spain and the title “Puerto Rican citizen”, although it applied, meant little, as Puerto Rico was not a free country or legally part of another. This ambiguity was finally solved by the Jones act of 1917 by which Puerto Ricans became American citizens and Puerto Rico became an unincorporated territory of the United States. During the years between 1900 and 1940, Puerto Rico and its people suffered through enormous hardships created by lack of jobs and by poor pay in those jobs that existed. The economy was basically agricultural and one-crop, sugar cane, and the lands producing it and the factories to extract the sugar were mainly owned by corporations from the United States mainland who paid low wages and repatriated all the profits. Partial self-government was granted in 1947, enabling citizens to elect their own governor for the first time. In 1952 a new constitution made Puerto Rico an autonomous part of the United States called the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, or Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico. The Flag and Seal of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico</A> were adopted by the legislative assembly in 1952.

This subtropical island has developed into the only Caribbean island where industry and commerce has exceed primary agricultural production. The island and its approximately 3.3 million citizens are self-governed as a free associated state of the United States. Puerto Ricans now have most of the benefits of American citizenship, including federal welfare aid but Puerto Ricans are unable to vote in United States presidential elections despite being subject to service in the armed forces. There is great public interest in resolving the political status issue and the main difference in the political parties is their differing views of the status issue. The Partido Independista calls for total independence as a nation-state, the Populares support the present commonwealth status, and the Partido Nuevo Progresista advocates statehood, hoping to see Puerto Rico become the 51st state of the United States.

The people of Puerto Rico have a love of their country, or “patria”, that accepts the free association with the mainland but emphasizes loyalty to their own culture, way of life, spirit, folklore, hospitality, and ways of getting along with others. Many Puerto Ricans move between the island and United States mainland to get the “best of both worlds”; culture, identity, and a familiar environment in the former; material wealth, education, acquisition of skills, and opportunities for their children from temporary residence in the United States. Many return to the Caribbean; many stay in the United States; and the constant circulation of Puerto Ricans between homes is now an enduring feature of the island’s experience.

Economically Puerto Rico has a greater variety of industrial, commercial, and financial service activities and a better developed transportation network than other Caribbean islands. Statistics show that it has some of the most favorable economic and demographic conditions in Latin America and the Caribbean. In comparison to the United States, however, Puerto Rico’s position is still quite below that of the poorest state of the Union, Mississippi.

Puerto Rican culture is somewhat complex, -others will call it colorful. Culture is a series of visual manifestations and interactions with the environment that make a region and/or a group of people different from the rest of the world. Puerto Rico, without a doubt has several unique characteristics that distinguish their culture from any other.

Lets consider that the people of Puerto Rico represent a cultural and racial mix. During the early 18-century, the Spaniard in order to populate the country took Taino Indian women as brides. Later on as labor was needed to maintain crops and build roads, African slaves were imported, followed by the importation of Chinese immigrants, then continued with the arrival of Italians, French, German, and even Lebanese people. American expatriates came to the island after 1898. Long after Spain had lost control of Puerto Rico, Spanish immigrants continued to arrive on the island. The most significant new immigrant population arrived in the 1960s, when thousands of Cubans fled from Fidel Castro’s Communist state. The latest arrivals to Puerto Rico have come from the economically depressed Dominican Republic. This historic intermingling has resulted in a contemporary Puerto Rico practically without racial problems.

Malta’s strategic setting at the crossroads of the Mediterranean shipping lanes has always played a crucial role in the island’s history. Over the centuries the great Mediterranean powers have fought to dominate the islands, each new arrival leaving its legacy. What you see today is a complex amalgam of ethnic influences. The Arabs introduced citrus trees and the flat-topped houses, and they laid the foundations for the Maltese language. The Aragonese, from central Spain, left their mark in the medieval architecture of Malta’s historic town centers and the enclosed wooden balconies which typify the splendid town houses.

Malta’s situation in the central Mediterranean has made it an important strategic base since the earliest days of navigation. The first civilization to leave any significant remains flourished in the third millennium BC, building many megalithic temples. Later the island was occupied by the Phoenicians, the Carthaginians and the Romans. Christianity arrived early, in about AD 60, when St Paul was shipwrecked off the coast, and the religion rapidly established itself. On the partition of the Roman Empire, Malta passed under the control of Constantinople. Arab attacks during the eighth and ninth centuries culminated in the surrender of the islands to the governor of Muslim Sicily in 870, but subsequently the Normans reconquered Sicily, and Malta passed back to Christian control in 1090.

The Norman rule of the 12th century witnessed a great expansion of trade and a flowering of the arts and sciences, reflecting the splendors of Sicily itself, but the death of the last Hautville king in 1194 ushered in a period of confusion. Prosperity alternated with internal chaos for the rest of the Middle Ages, as the island repeatedly became caught up in the great dynastic struggles of the Mediterranean. The Hohenstaufer (mainly Frederick II), the Angevins, the Aragonnese, the Venetians, the Genoese, the Papacy, the kings of France and the Arabs – all, at various times, attempted to gain control of Malta. Political stability did not return until the 16th century, when Malta, together with Sicily, became part of the vast empire of Charles V, who in 1530, recognized the strategic value of the islands for Christendom, by granting them to the Knights of St John.

For the next 250 years Malta was a bulwark against Turkish ambitions in Europe, notably in 1565 when, against overwhelming odds, the island was successfully defended. Napoleon briefly held Malta in the last three years of the 18th century, but a British-backed rebellion forced him to retreat and the British ruled for the next 181 years. The most famous episode in Malta’s recent history was the heroic defense of the island during World War II for which the nation was awarded the George Cross. In 1956 a referendum came down heavily in favor of full integration with Britain, a policy then backed by the governing Maltese Labor Party (MLP) under Dom Mintoff. Successive rounds of talks failed, and by 1961 independence was sought by both the major political parties, the other being the conservative Nationalist Party then led by Dr Borg Olivier.

Independence was achieved in 1964, and Dr Borg Olivier became Prime Minister. Mintoff’s MLP won the 1971 elections and began to pursue a policy of neutrality, reaching treaties with Libya, Italy and the then USSR, amongst other states. In 1979 the British military base was closed. In May 1987, 16 years of MLP rule came to an end when the center-right Nationalist party, led by Dr Edward Fenech Adami took power. The Nationalists also won the 1992 general election and, during their decade in power, followed the general European pattern of liberalizing and deregulating the Maltese economy.

By the mid-1990s the overriding political issue in Malta was membership of the European Union. The Nationalists under Fenech-Adami were strongly in favor; the Labor party was an equally vehement opponent. Labor believed that EU agricultural policies would increase the cost of living and undermine Malta’s traditional neutrality. In September 1996, the Fenech-Adami Government, pursuing its mandate of full EU membership, called a general election. This led to an unexpected Labor victory at the polls: party leader Dr Alfred Sant immediately announced that EU membership was no longer on the agenda.

The Sant government planned that Malta’s association agreement with the EU (signed in 1970 as an essential initial step towards full membership) was to be converted into a ‘free trade zone’ between Malta and the EU. Also scrapped was Malta’s participation in the NATO ‘Partnership for Peace’ program, under which non-members of NATO – mostly east European – could align themselves with the organization. In September 1998, however, a split within the MLP forced a snap general election at which the NP was returned to power. Fenech-Adami, now the elder statesman of Maltese politics, announced that EU membership was government policy once again and, within months, Malta’s suspended application was re-submitted. While the accession negotiations proceeded smoothly thereafter, the government faced a more difficult task in persuading the often insular Maltese to overcome their suspicion of ‘control from Brussels’. At a national referendum in March 2003, 5 per cent backed membership. Malta finally joined, along with nine other countries (mostly from eastern and central Europe), in May 2004. Premier Fenech-Adami, despite the debacle of 1996, decided to follow up the referendum with a general election. That time the gamble worked, and the Nationalists were re-elected. It is now hoped that dissent has been assuaged and Malta can prepare for what it’s integration with the EU shall entail.

The Kingdom of Thailand (known as Siam until 1939) was ruled by the Khmers, based in what is now neighboring Cambodia, during the 11th and 12th centuries. In 1238, two Thai chieftains rebelled against Khmer domination and established the first independent Thai kingdom. Ayutthaya, to the north of Bangkok, was the capital of the kingdom from the early 14th century, until its destruction by Burmese invaders in 1767. The Burmese were quickly forced out and the monarchy re-established. The absolute rule of the monarchy lasted until 1932, when it was replaced by a system of constitutional monarchy.

Thereafter, Thailand gradually installed a democratic, pluralistic system of government. Progress was slow, mainly because of the attitude of the military, which has traditionally exercised a strong (although rarely beneficial) influence on Thai politics. Since 1932, the army has taken over the government on no less than 17 occasions. During the Cold War, this was a minor consideration – democratic governments were a rarity in the region and Thailand’s chief strategic ally, the USA, were more concerned with Thailand’s role as a bulwark against encroaching communism from elsewhere in Southeast Asia. In this regard, Thailand was an influential member of the main regional anti-communist bloc, Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN). Since the end of the Cold War, Thailand has been prominent in proposing the reformation of ASEAN into a regional trading bloc.

This was part of a realignment of Thai foreign policy engineered by the government of Chatichai Choonhaven, who led the country from his election in 1988 until his overthrow in a military coup in February 1991. This coup – the 17th and last since 1932 – was a short-lived affair headed by army chief General Suchinda Kraprayoon and ended with a return to democratic civilian government in March 1992.

Over the next five years, Thailand had four elections and a variety of coalition governments. King Bhumibol, who is revered as a semi-deity by many Thais, intervened on several occasions to calm situations that appeared otherwise to be spiralling out of control. As well as the inherent problems of coalition politics, successive governments were also being undermined by growing corruption in Thailand’s political and business life. These issues were brought to a head by the 1997 Asian financial crisis, of which Thailand was one of the principal victims. The incumbent government fell, due to its inept handling of the crisis. After that, Chuan Leekpai, who had held the premiership between the end of 1992 and mid-1995, returned to the premiership at the head of Pak Prachatipat (Democratic Party), the main liberal party in Thailand.

1997 was a watershed year for Thailand. As well as the economic crisis, from which Thailand initially suffered severely but has since recovered well (see Economy), a new constitution limiting the influence of the military was finally put in place. The first elections for a new Senate under this new constitution were held in March 2000. The poll for the more powerful House of Representatives was held in January 2001. The problem of corruption, which has long bedeviled Thai politics, was reflected in the fact that the winner – the billionaire tycoon, Thaksin Shinawatra – had been indicted for fraud and tax evasion. Nonetheless, leading the quirkily named Thai Rak Thai (Thais Love Thais) party, Thaksin Shinawatra won a decisive mandate on the basis of promises to support poor farmers and stand up to the IMF.

Despite his personal difficulties, Thaksin has presided over a relatively successful administration and became the country’s first democratically-elected prime minister to win a second consecutive term in a landslide victory in elections held in February 2005. The Democrats appear unlikely to overturn Thaksin’s huge majority, especially since their most popular and experienced politician, Chuan Leekpai, retired in 2003. The economy is booming once again and significant progress has been made in the foreign policy field, especially in relations with India and Malaysia, with whom co-operative agreements on bilateral mutual security have been signed. Thailand also hosted a key stage of the ultimately successful peace talks between the Sri Lanka government and the Tamil Tiger rebels (see Sri Lanka). There have been some setbacks. The border with Myanmar, Thailand’s most troublesome neighbor in recent years, was closed for much of 2002 after fighting between the Myanmar army and Shan rebels spilled over into Thai territory – not for the first time. There has also been a steadily growing insurgency in the mainly Muslim-populated provinces in southern Thailand bordering Malaysia. This is rapidly becoming a serious problem for the Thai government.

In addition, on December 26 2004, an earthquake in southeast Asia triggered a tsunami that impacted considerably upon Thailand’s tourist infrastructure. The west coast was the worst hit area, including outlying areas and tourist resorts near Phuket. Many hotels were ruined. Thousands were killed and there are still around three thousand people missing. Although the Thai authorities were not keen on requesting disaster relief aid, they have sought technical help in identifying the many who died - this process is ongoing.

Shadow Puppet Plays

Very seldom seen these days except in the south are the shadow puppet plays known as “Nang Yai” and “Nang Thalung”. Nang Thalung is the more popular of the two where puppets crafted from cow hide have strings attached for better character movements. The puppeteers then move these along with the music and comical dialogs. Meanwhile, Nang Yai have become rather rare these days and the puppets are larger in size than those of the Nang Thalung.

Traditional Thai Music

Traditional Thai music is a blending of musical elements from a number of cultures, such as Chinese, Khmer, and Indian. This applies not only to the instruments but also to the melodies. Therefore Thai music can be said to be derivative. Notwithstanding that fact, Thai music has developed into a distinct form, which is regarded as belonging to the ‘high’ musical cultures of Southeast Asia.

Khon

Amongst the most famous of Thailand’s cultural show is the Khon. Khon masked drama evolved in the royal court of Siam, although its roots lies in folk dances of the countryside. Here, performers don elaborate jeweled costumes; men wear masks and women gilded head-dresses. Music accompanies the dance and the dialog and songs are performed by an off-stage chorus.

Likay

It is thought that likay originated from Muslim religious performances. It was adopted by the Thais and in time become primarily a comedy folk art enjoyed by common people with singing and dancing. In recent years, likay artists have begun to incorporate political jibes into their repertoires. Cultured people in Bangkok used to look upon likay as rough and unsophisticated. But today, it has gain greater recognition as an art form.

Mexico’s historical attractions - from the ancient ruins of the Olmecs, Maya, and Aztec, to the train routes used by the brash and legendary Pancho Villa - rank second only to the beaches of Cancun - and Alcapulco as the prime reason people come. The reason for this is simple: the tale of Mexico’s past, accompanied by an overwhelming amount of physical remains, is as romantic, blood-curling, dramatic, and complex as it gets.

Somewhere around 1000 BC, the first of Mexico’s ancient civilizations, the Olmecs, established themselves in what are now the states of Veracruz and Tabasco. They worshipped a jaguar God, built cities, constructed massive stone head carvings, and spread throughout central and southern Mexico until their civilization mysteriously vanished around 400 BC. Though the Olmecs left behind relatively few artifacts, their influence on later cultures was profound. In their wake came the Teotihuacan, the Zapotecs and Mixtecs of Monte Alban, the Maya of Yucatan, the Toltecs, Aztecs, and dozens of smaller, citied groups. To balance the spiritual and earthly realms and appease their pantheons of gods, many of these civilizations practiced human sacrifice, a fact that often overshadows their great achievements in the realms of mathematics, astronomy, architecture, textile weaving, art, and pottery. The Maya, for example, were so advanced in mathematics and astronomy that their calendar was the world’s most accurate until this century. They could also predict solar and lunar eclipses.

None of Mexico’s pre-Columbian civilizations is more storied, however, than the Aztecs. Though it is arguable that other civilizations in Mexico achieved greater artistic and scientific feats, none advanced as quickly or ruled as much   territory. Prior to the 15th century, the Aztecs were a marginal tribe living on the edge of Lake Texcoco, the site of present day Mexico City.  By 1473, after subjugating neighboring tribes, they ruled the largest empire Mexico had ever seen. Their capital of Tenochtitlan, set in the lake, was a picturesque city of pyramids, mile-long floating roads, aquaducts, animated marketplaces, and one hundred thousand residents. Leading a highly codified government was an all-powerful emperor who exacted taxes from the conquered and distributed land to his people, especially the warriors. When the Spanish adventurer Hernan Cortez arrived in 1519, the rich city was a vision perfectly meshed to his thirst for conquest.

The Conquest of New Spain, a great and tragic history, begins in April of 1519  when a Cortes lands in Veracruz, about 200 miles from the Aztec capital.  Cortes  had a singular mission: defeat the Aztecs and take their gold. To do so, he had  less than 400 soldiers, 16 horses, 14 pieces of artillery, 11 ships, plenty of guns and ammunition, and cajones. His first act upon landing was to burn all but one of his ships - he wanted no turning back. That he was able to defeat an empire with just a few hundred men seems nothing short of miraculous, but some of el conquistador’s success, however, can be attributed to plain and simple luck.

According to an Aztec myth, the white-faced Quetzacuatl - their most important god - had long ago fled to the east, but would one day return. When the Aztec ruler, Moctezuma II, beheld Cortes and his light-skinned men upon their arrival  in Tenochtitlan, he believed them to be emissaries of the great Quetzacuatl himself. The opportunistic Cortes, coached by Malinche - a Spanish-speaking Indian who had become his lover back at the coast - did not attempt to correct him. Cortes returned the emperor’s hospitality by taking him hostage. A  compliant Moctezuma ordered his people to stand down, and by the time the Aztecs  began to resist Cortes had already brought in reinforcements from the coast. The Aztecs disowned their cooperative, captive emperor, who died a prisoner in his own palace. When the Aztecs finally laid siege to the palace, Cortes and his men  snuck away in the middle of the night and ran for the coast. On the way, over half his force was killed by the pursuing army, but the survivors returned with thousands of Indian allies to conquer the city a year later.

Mexico, with its fertile plains and great mineral wealth, was the crown jewel of Spain’s colonies. It was heavily taxed, ruled directly from Spain, and permitted no autonomy. The Spanish monarchs distributed land to settlers in the form of encomiendas (the predecessor to the hacienda), which were worked by Indian slaves that the settler’s were charged to protect and convert to Christianity. A caste system developed: there were Espanoles (Spaniards born in Spain), criollos (Mexican-born, but with Spanish blood), mestizos (Spanish and Indian), and finally the indigenes, the Indians. Because of their forced dependence on the hacienda owners, and no resistance to European ailments, the Indians were riddled with debt and disease long after Spain abolished slavery in 1548.

If the seeds of Mexican independence had not already been planted in the soil,  then they were planted when Napoleon conquered Spain in 1808 When the French conqueror placed his brother on the Spanish throne, Mexico’s elite began to talk of self-rule. The man who turned talk into action was a Catholic priest named Father Miguel de Hidalgo y Costilla, who led an armed rebellion in 1810. Though  he was eventually captured and executed, Hidalgo’s leadership began a war of independence that culminated on September 27, 1821, when the rebel leader Vicente Guerrero and the royalist Agustin de Iturbide signed the Treaty of  Cordoba. Unfortunately, with independence Mexico’s troubles were just beginning.

For almost a century, the new country would be wracked by marked by almost incessant fighting. One of the first Mexican presidents, the former rebel general Santa Ana, is sourly credited with losing half his country to the United  States after a two-year war that ended in 1848. Santa Ana was eventually exiled and succeeded by Ignacio Comonfort, who abdicated the presidency in favor of one  of Mexico’s best-loved leaders, a mestizo from the state of Oaxaca (”Wah-ha-ka”) named Benito Juarez.. Juarez liberalized the constitution and instituted  land-reform, infuriating the wealthy conservative class and setting off a bloody conflict known as the War of Reform, which lasted from 1858 to 1861. Juarez’s  forces were victorious, but by the time the war was over Mexico’s coffers were dry and it was defaulting on its foreign debt payments. France, a major lender, and saw this as a perfect excuse to invade. Napoleon III sent in the archduke of Austria, Maximilian, who quickly took most of the country. After a dogged resistance, Juarez finally retook Mexico City in 1867 and Maximilian was  executed. To the archduke’s credit, much of his defeat was caused by his own conscience and love for Mexico: during his rule, he passionately instituted a series of progressive reforms that enraged the conservatives and caused Napoleon to abandon him.

In 1871, a mestizo named Porfirio Diaz ran against Juarez for president and was defeated. A sore loser, he decided to overthrow the government and succeeded five years later. His iron-fisted rule, which lasted almost 40 years, became  known as the Porfiriato. During his reign, Diaz sold off much of Mexico’s industries to foreigners and routinely suppressed his opponents with brutal force. He was ultimately challenged by hacienda owner Francisco I. Madero in his  famous book The Presidential Succession of 1910. Diaz ordered Madero arrested, but the latter fled to the US and returned to win the presidency in 1910, backed by the legendary Emiliano Zapata, who was leading a revolt against Diaz in the South. But Madero’s presidency was short lived; Madero’s own military commander, Victoriano Huerta, assassinated him with the help of the US embassador, and in the tremendously bloody war that ensued, Huerta’s forces were pitted against a formidable alliance led by men whose names are now legend: Venustiano Carranza, General Alvaro Obregon, Emiliano Zapata, and the infamous Pancho Villa in the north. The Mexican Revolution, among the bloodiest internal conflicts in world history, was on.

Once Huerta was defeated, Carranza assumed the presidency, but this was only the beginning. Villa and Zapata, refusing to recognize him, drove he and Obregon from the capital. While the armies of the north and south held wild fiestas in the capital, Carranza and Obregon retreated to Veracruz, where they quickly reassembled and then retook the capital when Villa and Zapata failed to organize  a government. Obregon later annihilated Villa’s cavalry in Celaya, and Villa would never again be so powerful. Carranza held power until the next elections, when it became clear that the popular Obregon would defeat him. Falling into the now well-worn trap of wanting to hold power for too long, Carranza tried to stage a coup, but Obregon escaped and his forces returned to chase and kill Carranza as he fled along the old escape route to Veracruz.  Meanwhile, in a last-ditch attempt to pull the United States into a conflict against Carranza, Villa invaded several US border towns and killed some inhabitants. After an unsuccessful pursuit by US forces, Villa finally hung up his pistoles and became a farmer in Parral. He was assassinated in 1923 when his car was ambushed. His brother in the south, Zapata, was also killed in 1919 after he was lured into a trap by a government soldier. When it was all over, the only man left alive, Obregon, was president.

Mexico’s post-revolution history is marked by the tenacity of a single political party, the Partido Revolucionario Institutional, or PRI. The party was founded by Plutarco Elias Calles, who took over as president when Obregon was assassinated (quite possibly by a Calles plot) in 1928. But the party’s most loved president was General Lazaro Cardenas in 1934. Cardenas instituted widespread land reform, strengthened unions, and nationalized the petroleum industry. PRI candidates, who are hand-picked by the president, have held power since - but not always peacefully. Election fraud has been endemic (although recent elections indicate this is changing). In 1968, the government violently suppressed a student protest in Mexico city, killing hundreds. The last 30 years have seen a heavily fluctuating economy, an influx of refugees from Central America, and inveterate government corruption (much of it linked to the illicit drug-trade). Though the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has provided economic hope to some, it has also helped spur Indian guerillas in Chiapas to rebel against what they see as an uncaring government. Many Mexicans put their hope in 1994 PRI candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio, only to have them dashed when he was assassinated the same year in Tijuana. The current political atmosphere in Mexico is, however, optimistic. Indications are that the PRI is willing share power with the opposition. Last year, for the first time in history, Mexico City elected a mayor who was not a PRI candidate. Traditionally, the mayoral seat of Mexico City is the second most powerful office in the nation, and the citizens of the Districto Federal could not have elected a more ironic man: he is Cuauhtemoc Cardenas, the son of the PRI’s beloved Lazaro Cardenas. He ran against his father’s party, and won.

The Original Inhabitants
The original name of the Island, Tite-Roy-Gatra, translates as Rose-coloured-Hill. Lanceletto Malocello, a Genoese navigator who arrived on the island in 1312, is credited with making its presence known to the European powers of the time. In 1339 the very first reference to the Island was recorded in the “Dulcert Atlas” as the Island found by Lancelotto Malocello. The name Lanzarote is the direct translation into Spanish of Lancelot (Lancelloto).
At the time of Marcello’s arrival a king, Zonzamas, ruled the Island. The name is still borne by the ruins of his palace which stood on a plateau near San Bartolome, considered one of the most important archaeological sites in the Canary Islands.
The original inhabitants, generally known as the Gaunches, were divided into three levels: the royal family, the noblemen and the peasants. Those at the bottom of the hierarchy laboured and fished while those at the top occupied positions of command and administered justice.
King Zonzamas was succeeded by Ico, his daughter, and her consort, Guanarteme. They in turn were followed by their son Gaurdafia who was the ruler at the time of the Spanish colonisers led by Juan De Bethencourt in 1402.

The Norman expedition on behalf of Spain
The conquest of Lanzarote led by Bethencourt began in earnest in 1402. Bethencourt, a Norman, set out for the Canary Islands on behalf of Castile. The claim of Spain over the Archipelago had been recognised since the days of Alfonso X1. The king Guardafia showed no signs of resistance and in fact, along with the Islanders, welcomed the Norman Knight. Bethencourt promised to protect Lanzarote against pirates and in return was promised a peaceful submission of the Island and Guardafia , but as a friend and not a subject.
Following such a welcome Juan De Bethencourt proceeded to build Rubicon castle, close to his landing spot, with the intention of defending the island. He then left for Spain to swear allegiance to Enrique III.
Bethencourt returned after an absence of two years and was faced with the task of subduing the Islanders who had always treated him as their friend. They finally surrendered on 27 February 1404 and on that day their King, Guardafia, was baptised and christened Luis. Bethencourt was granted the title of king of the Canary Islands by Pope Innocent VII. He died in Normandy in 1425.
Bethencuort was succeeded by his nephew Maciot who turned out to be a tyrant. He established Teguise as the capital and seat of governor. The Portuguese had also laid claim to the islands and Maciot was suspected of trying to sell the Canaries Islands to them. In the end an arbitration by the Pope decided in favour of Castile (Spain). Eventually, Maciot was forced to sign an agreement abdicating his rights over Lanzarote and the other islands for all time.
The house of Diego de Herrera and Ines Peraza and their descendants ruled the island over the following decades and the first ruler to be granted the title Count of Lanzarote was Agustin de Herrera y Rojas. He was famous for his exploits in seeing off pirates of many nationalities. He died in Teguise in 1598 and Lanzarote remained under a feudal system, governed by his successors until 1812.

The division of the canaries into two provinces of Spain
The Constitution of Cadiz of 1812 abolished the feudal system and the Canaries became a province of Spain with Santa Cruz de Tenerife as the capital. In 1852 the law of free ports granted the islands immunity from customs and excise duties.
Half a century later in 1927, the Archipelago was divided into two provinces:
The Province of Tenerife: Tenerife, La Gomera, La Palma, and Hierro with Santa Cruz, Tenerife, as capital.
The Province of Gran Canaria: Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura with Las Palmas, Gran Canaria as capital.

In 1982 the Canary Islands were declared an Autonomous Region of Spain.